Development of Conflict between Members of a Small Team and the Essay

Development of Conflict between Members of a Small Team and the Measures Taken To Solve the Impasse - Essay Example This paper illustrates that a recent experience that forms the main basis of this reflection forms the researcher’s experience of a workplace conflict in a team of four and the associated measures the author had to take to intervene in the situation being the supervisor. Mr. Michael, a new employee at the company, was recently transferred from another branch to the environmental department of that comprised of three members of staff and the researcher, as the supervisor in the department. Mr. Michael was African and as the author would later discover his arrival resulted in tension and misunderstanding in the department. Mr. Moses, the department long-serving officer was involved in a heated discussion with Michael on the jobs allocated to Mr. Michael that turned out to be more than the other two were given and in the process, Moses used a racial slur. Mr. Michael believed that the other members of the department were in a collision since they did not agree to share work equal ly resulting in hostility developing into workplace conflict among the four members of the department. Mr. Moses and the other department members believed that they were superior having only interacted with department members of the same color since Mr. Michael was the first employee in the company of a different ethnic community. In hindsight, it has come to my view that the author could have taken different measures that could have resulted in a better solution to the situation. After the confrontation, the work environment was edgy and filled with anxiety that no work was being completed successfully owing to the no-talking terms between Mr. Michael and the other members of the department including Mr. Moses. After meetings with the department members and one-on-one conversation with Mr. Michael and Mr. Moses to help resolve the situation to no avail, the author felt that he need to step in and solve the issue for the benefit of the organization and the success of the department. Since the department was running well before Mr. Michael’s arrival, the author requested his transfer, which he previously requested when the discrimination occurred since he believed he could not effectively work with the team. On reflecting on the solution, the author believes it was not morally correct to have undertaken that decision.

Zipcar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Zipcar - Essay Example It can be apparently said that in the US car rental market, as per 2011 statistical records, revenue touched a record high with the process of generation of over $1000, per unit for the entire US market, thereby bringing into focus the various levels of efficiencies that has been achieved by the players in the particular market (Arn.com 2012). However, it can be said that the entire market for this business is highly vulnerable to various factors of macro and micro economic nature (IbisWorld.com 2012). Item 2. The young car rental company Zipcar has increasingly focused its forward approach on various strategies with regards to capitalizing on the various prospects that are associated with the growth of the company as well as its sustenance in the car rental market in the presence of big competitors and tremendous competition and market pressure in the long term. For the purpose of attaining significant growth and business edge, Zipcar focused on effective segmentation and targeting. By the focusing on the opportunity of targeting college crowd for its rental services, it developed a unique market to serve and thereby developing an edge over the others. It can be said that while this certainly provided an edge at the beginning, but it may not be sustainable in the long term as competitors may increasingly target the same market. Also, from the damage point of view, the cost of maintaining the resources while catering to the target market is also significantly high. The financial analysis a lso supports the fact of high operating expenses for the company. The evaluation of the financial performance over the 3 year period shows that thought the company had an increase in revenue yet the cost related to fleet operations also went up. It also revealed that the operating expenses also increased over the period. So, it can be said that servicing the college student are coming out as a little expensive over the years. Talking in terms of the company’s long term prospects, it can be said that the company is yet to get established in a secured manner. The reason behind that is because though the company has achieved a significant growth in revenue yet its operational expenses are also increasing. Despite the high growth rate, it is not very effective for a new company to have high operating costs as the chances of maintaining profits will gets reduced with the company’s attainment of capacity as well as market saturation by other car rental companies. Apart from this, it also has to be taken in to account that the company’s main competitive edge of servicing the college students can be targeted by well established rival companies, thereby reducing the company’s standalone advantages. The company should focus on increasing the efficiency in terms of economies of scale by reducing cost of operations for the purpose of securing itself over the long term. Item 3. It can be said t

Do Bystanders Have A Responsibility To Intervene?

Do Bystanders Have A Responsibility To Intervene? Everyone needs help at some point in their life. When someone is in trouble and needs help, I assume that person would want someone to step in and help them when they are in need. But that is not what always happens. Sometimes when people see someone in trouble they wont intervene at all, they will just keep watching or walk by like they did not anything. Sometimes people will see someone in trouble and literally pretend like nothing is happening. People play an important role when it comes to someone needing help. They can either do the right thing and help the person in need or be a useless bystander and let whatever happens happen (Which is very selfish). I believe that as a bystander, you have a responsibility to intervene when there is a trouble. I am a strong believer in the golden rule. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you Rosemary K.M. Sword, Philip Zimbardo. If and when you see a person in trouble it is up to you to decide whether or not you are going to assist that person or let them fend for themselves. If you decide that you are not going to help that person, I assume that you are a very selfish and self centered person and that you do not care about anyone but yourself. Therefore if you were the one in trouble, you would not want anyone to help you out in a similar situation. I find people like that very foolish. If you were in trouble and help was available, why wouldnt you accept the help? Now I know there are certain people in this world that just dont want help or think they can handle the situation by themselves. Some people have too much pride or too big of an ego. These people dont want to look weak in front of everyone or be looked down upon for not standing up for themselves. Men are more prone to not ask or accept help when it is offered. On the other hand females would willingly accept help when they are in trouble. Ego is not such a big problem in women as it is in men. For example if there is a woman in public and everyone sees this guy harassing and bothering her after she has repeatedly told him to stop, I can guarantee you, if and when someone steps in to help the woman is not going to turn down the offer. If she does she foolish. However if it was a man being harassed instead of a woman, the man would probably either calmly walk away or end up fighting the guy harassing him. He would probably tell the person who intervenes to back off and that he has the situation under control. If the man being harassed was of a calmer demeanor he would either ignore the man harassing him or just calmly walk away. Everyone should get the same treatment no matter what. But sometimes it does not always happen like that. Sometimes peoples decision whether or not to intervene when there is trouble can be altered by certain factors. These factors include the bystander effect, gender and/or sometimes even race. The bystander effect occurs when the presence of others discourages an individual from intervening in an emergency situation as described by John Darley and Bibb Latane. For example Bibb and John were two social psychologists who were teachers in NYC during the 1960s. Around that time the infamous murder of Kitty Genovese occurred. Even though Kitty Genovese was continuously screaming and shouting to try and ward off her assailant, none of her neighbors from her apartment complex helped her. They all stood there and watched her get stabbed to death. But if they saw her getting attacked, why didnt anyone help her and save her life? The answer may be simpler than you believe. Pluralistic ignora nce When the groups majority privately believes one thing and mistakenly assumes that most others believe the opposite Melissa Burkley. For example, lets say there was a car wreck on the highway and all these cars are just driving by then you drive by just like everybody else assuming that someone else has already called 9-1-1 or that someone has stopped by to help the car crash victims to make sure that they are ok. Another good example which you may or may not have been apart of happens in the classroom more than you think. Lets assume your teacher just finished teaching a very difficult lesson and is about to hand out the class worksheet. But before she hands out the lesson worksheet she asks the entire class if anyone has any questions about the lesson and is there anything they want her to go back over one more time. Lets one of her students is confused and he wants to ask the teacher a question about the lesson. He will probably scan around the classroom and look to see if a nyone else was going to raise their hand to ask the teacher a question . When he saw that no one else raised his/her hand he stopped himself from putting his hand up. He did this to avoiding looking dumb and so he would not be recognized as the only person in the class who was confused and had a question about the lesson the teacher had just taught literally minutes ago. From a teachers point of view you could conclude that if one of the students had a question theres a good chance that a good majority of the students had a question and were puzzled and confused. One student not being able or afraid to ask the teacher her question can result in the whole class suffering due to that one students decision. Some think that gender may also play a role in whether or not people intervene when someone is in trouble and vice versa. Men in our world today are portrayed as aggressive, rational, and very competent and powerful. While women are looked upon as passive, sensitive, and very supportive. These traits in both men and women can greatly affect whether or not someone would help them or step in if they were in any kind of trouble. Lets start with the men. Assume its a public setting at a park and all of a sudden theres a big commotion by one of the park benches because a man took Tonys seat. Everyone sees Tony arguing with the man and as time goes on the argument gets more and more intense to the point where they are about to start fighting. Would anyone step in and beak it up? If you saw 2 grown men that were about to fight would you stop them or wait to see what everyone else was going to do before you make a move. I would jump in and stop them and try to talk them down until they both calmed down and went their separate ways. Its just the right thing to do. If that was you in that situation I bet you would want someone to help you out, especially if you knew that you probably wasnt gone win if yall really did fight. Now women on the hand is a lot different. Heres a scenario, theres a middle aged woman standing in the shade of a tree relaxing minding her own business at a park. Then a few minutes later a stranger walks up to her and starts harassing . At this point you can assume that pretty much everyone in the park knows or is watching the stranger harass this woman. Since female are perceived as weaker than their male counterparts I believe that within two minutes of the woman being harassed a man/woman either stepped in and forcefully removed the stranger away from the innocent woman or if they were female they told them to leave her alone . That woman did nothing to deserve being harassed, but would the result have been the same if she did something to deserv e it? Lets say its that same woman and stranger in the same setting but this time the woman stole the strangers wallet and walked off and stood under the tree in the shade relaxing. The stranger comes over the old lady talking aloud asking why you stole my wallet. Everyone hears this recognizes the stranger as the one who needs help. The woman refuses to give the stranger his wallet back. At this moment I believe one to two other males and one female would have stepped in to help the man get his wallet back. The role of the bad guy all depends on the circumstances and the situation. In conclusion I firmly believe that bystanders do have a responsibility to intervene when there is trouble and they play a big part in determining how that situation is going to end. If no one helps it ends badly, if someone steps in to make things right, everyone goes home happy. I believe that the reason some people intervene is because they believe that in the future they will receive that same help if and when they are in trouble. What goes around comes around if you dont step in to help a person in need, then you must not want help if and when you get into any sort of trouble.Just do the right thing be a good samaritan.

Weltys Characterization in A Curtain of Green Essay -- A Curtain of Gr

Welty's Characterization in A Curtain of Green      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Myth, symbol, and allusion are not an uncommon characteristic in Eudora Welty's works. By using characters such as Odysseus and leaving hints of symbolism in works such as The Optimist's Daughter Welty places many questions in the minds of her readers. After a reader has pondered these questions a categorization of the story takes place in the readers mind. Although different readers have different interpretations of literature one collection of Welty's short stories can be classified into two categories. Katherine Anne Porter's introduction to Eudora Welty's A Curtain of Green explains the two categories:    as painters of the grotesque make only detailed reports of actual living types observed more keenly than the average eye is capable of observing, so Miss Welty's little human monsters are not really caricatures at all, but individuals exactly and clearly presented: which is perhaps a case against realism, if we cared to go into it. She does better on another level-for the important reason that the themes are richer-in such beautiful storiesLet me admit a deeply personal preference for this particular kind of story, where external act and the internal voiceless life of the human imagination almost meet and mingle on the mysterious threshold between dream and waking, on reality refusing to admit or confirm the existence of the other, yet both conspiring toward the same end. (xxi)    According to Porter the two categories found in A Curtain of Green are that of grotesque or monstrous and that of beauty or standing on the gateway between consciousness and unconsciousness. Acknowledging that there are two categories for Welty's stories Porter also address'... ...989): 59-70.    Boyce, Charles. Shakespeare A to Z . New York: Dell, 1990.    Brown, Alan. "Welty's A Curtain of Green." The Explicator 51.4 (1993) 242-44. Encarta Learning Zone. 1997-2000. Dionysus. 24 April 2000 <http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?ti=057f8000>    Hauser, Marianne. "A Curtain of Green" The New York Times. 17 April 2000. http://channel.nytimes.com/books/98/11/22/specials/welty-curtain.html    Mythology The Myth of the Phoenix. 17 April 2000. http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Towers/1132/phoenixlhtm    Porter, Katherine Anne. Introduction. A Curtain of Green. By Eudora Welty. New York: Harvest, 1979.    Sykes, Dennis J. "Welty's 'The Worn Path.'" The Explicator 56.3 (1998): 151-53.    Welty, Eudora. The Collected Stories of Eudora Welty New York: Harvest, 1994.

Altex Corporation Case Study Essay

1.Why was a risk management plan considered unnecessary? According to the contract award, contracts at that time did not require that a risk management plan be develop while according to the sponsor the risk management plan was not necessary because most of the new weapon systems requirements are established by military personnel who have no sense of reality about what it takes to develop a weapon system based on technology which does not even exist yet. According Kerzner, in the earlier days of the project management on many commercial programs, the majority of project decisions heavily favored cost and schedule. This was because we knew more about cost and scheduling than we did about the technical risks. But on the other hand it is essential that programs define and implement appropriate risk management and contingency plans to enhance program management effectiveness and provide program managers a key tool to reduce life cycle costs (Kerzner, 2009). 2.Should risk management planning be performed in the proposal stage or after the contract award assuming that it must be done? Risk management is employed throughout the program’s life cycle and should be developed early in the program from the very beginning and addressed continually throughout the program. Risk management is not a separate program function but part and parcel of the overall program planning and management process. In order to be effective, the risk management process must be recognized as a program management activity, and not something limited to the engineering function. Any program element associated with cost, schedule, and performance has a direct interface with the risk management process. This process does not change fundamentally as the program progresses, although some changes or adjustments might occur as the program progress (Kerzner, 2009). 3.Does the customer have the right to expect the contractor to perform risk analysis and develop a risk management plan if it is not called out as part of the contractual statement of work? The customer has the right to expect the contractor to perform risk analysis and develop a risk management plan as part of the project planning. An effective life cycle risk management process requires a commitment on the part of the program manager and the program office to be successful. It is essential that Project manager define and implement an appropriate risk management and contingency plans. The customers expect the contractor to be the expert who knows what needs to be done in any project and that is why he has been hired to do the jobs. Risk management will enhance program effectiveness and provide program managers a key tool to reduce life cycle costs (Kerzner, 2009). 5.How effective will the risk management plan be if developed by the project manager in seclusion? There is no way a project manager will have a risk management plan in seclusion. The reason being first, Risk management planning is the process of deciding how to approach and plan the risk management activities of the project. Secondly the process will include identifying the project charter, current polices, current roles and responsibilities, and the project management plan and, the Risk Management Plan (RMP) strategy needs to be established early in the project and will need to be continually developed throughout the project life cycle. Project risks include business and contractual relationships, cost, funding, management, political, and schedule risks. Other risks are technical, production, and support risks. These entire put together risk management plan has to be part and parcel of the project planning (Kerzner, 2009). 6.Should the customer be allowed to participate in or assist the contractor in developing a risk management plan? Risk management requires early and continual involvement of all of the program team as well as outside help as appropriate. When we are trying to identify the risk we may get our results based on survey of the project and this will involves customer fully. We have to involve the customer since in any case there is a risk then it the risk management program that will support setting realistic cost, schedule, and performance objectives and identifies areas that require special attention. If we don’t involve the customer then that may lead to the customer loosing trust on our company and at the same time we will end up delivering a low quality work (Kerzner, 2009).

Couplings Elements Essay

Couplings are mechanical elements that ‘couples’ two drive elements which enables motion to be transferred from one element to another. The drive elements are normally shafts. We tend to see lot of applications of the couplings mainly in the automobiles, for example the drive shaft which connects the engine and the rear axle in a bus or any automobile is connected by means of a universal joint. In order to transmit torque between two shafts that either tend to lie in the same line or slightly misaligned, a coupling is used. Based on the area of applications there are various types of coupling available. But they are generally categorised in the following varieties 1. Rigid Couplings 2. Flexible or Compensating Couplings 3. Clutches to are a type of Coupling – We will the dealing on them separately. RIGID COUPLINGS Rigid Couplings are mainly used in areas where the two shafts are coaxial to each other. There are many types of couplings that fall under the rigid couplings category. They are  · Rigid Sleeve or Muff Couplings- This is the basic type of coupling. This consists of a pipe whose bore is finished to the required tolerance based on the shaft size. Based on the usage of the coupling a keyway in made in the bore in order to transmit the torque by means of the key. Two threaded holes are provided in order to lock the coupling in position. The photo shows a type of the rigid sleeve or muff coupling.  · Flanged Coupling – The coupling basically consists of two flanged end pieces as shown in the figure. A spigot and recess is provided in the flanges to provide location between them. The flanges are connected firmly by means of fitted bolts which are tightened accordingly to the torque to be transmitted. FLEXIBLE OR COMPENSATING COUPLINGS Flexible couplings are normally used in areas where the coaxiallity between the connecting shafts is not always assured and in areas where there is a possibility of occurrence of shocks in the transmission is applicable. They are also called as Elastic Couplings. By construction these couplings tend to have a elastic member in between the two connecting entities. The different types of flexible couplings are 1. Flanged Pin Bush Couplings 2. Bibbly Coupling 3. Gear Tooth Coupling 4. Tyre couplings 5. Elastomeric Couplings – This consists of jaw type and S-flex couplings. 6. Oldhams Coupling 7. Universal Coupling or Hooke’s Coupling 8. Bellows Coupling Each of the above couplings are quite unique in their construction and we can deal in detail on their constructional and working aspects in separate articles. BIBBLY COUPLING: This article deals with Bibby Resilient type couplings. The article describes constructional aspects of the coupling and the selection procedures for the coupling. * Named after its Inventor Dr. James Bibby in 1917, this coupling is still one of the most sought after flexible couplings for heavy shock applications. Let us now look at the constructional features of the coupling. 1. The Coupling consists of two flanges or hubs specifically mounted on the drive and the driven shafts respectively. These hubs contain axial grooves cut on their circumference. 2. The two couplings are joined or held together by means of a specially designed grid spring. 3. The total assembly is enclosed in a casing or shell filled with grease for low speed applications or, in high speed application with high viscosity oil. Now let’s look at the working aspect of the coupling and how it tends to reduce vibration and prevents the build up of resonance in the system. a.) The specially designed spring is wound up through the grooves forming a series of resilient bridges throughout the periphery of the coupling. b.) The grooves are tapered up at the edges (see photo) in order to provide extra flexible spans to the spring at normal loads and tends to support the spring at the sides whenever overloading occurs. c.) The stiffness of the spring depends on its unsupported length of each of its flexible span. The unsupported length tends to vary with the loads producing a varying stiffness for the coupling based on the loading. d.) This action tends to produce a detuning action altering the torsional vibration frequency of the system that prevents the build-up of resonance. Some applications of Bibby Couplings are 1. Cement Mills – in grinding and crushing machinery. 2. Cranes 3. Conveyors 4. Turbines 5. Marine Auxiliaries 6. Paper Mills Bibby couplings can be used for applications with powers varying from as low as 1 h.p to about 100,000 h.p. per 100 rpm of the coupling. Correspondingly the couplings are available in varying sizes ranging from 100mm diameter to 4000mm diameter. Bibby couplings are capable of taking axial and radial misalignments to a very small extent only. It is necessary for the user to ensure that both axial and radial misalignments are kept to the minimum possible. Selection procedure for Bibby Couplings: The selection of the Bibby coupling is mainly based on the torque being transmitted by the coupling. Each coupling has a characteristic value for the torque transmitted by it to the revolutions per minute of the coupling. The rating of the coupling is given by Rating = Maximum power to be transmitted in h.p/ r.p.m of coupling In order to account for contingencies like shocks, sudden stops, stalling, etc. a factor of safety is to be considered during selection of the coupling. Rating of coupling to be Selected = Max. power of coupling* Factor/ r.p.m. of coupling The chart containing the factors to be considered is given below based on the application and driving machinery. See the selection chart below for the selection of corresponding coupling based on the power. Note: This chart is an indicative for the selection of the Bibby coupling. Kindly refer to an actual manufacturer’s catalog for selection as ratings may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. GEAR COUPLING: This article deals with Gear Couplings. The article describes constructional aspects and selection procedures for flexible gear couplings. * Couplings are used as connecting elements between two shafts. The complexity in the type of connectivity, the power to be transmitted and the area of application tend to play a vital role in the selection of the type of the coupling. Gear Couplings belong to the category of flexible couplings that are capable of transmitting very high torques. Constructionally the gear coupling utilizes the advantages of gear engineering; practically the coupling is a complete gear assembly. Let us now look into the constructional aspects of the coupling. 1. The gear couplings consists of a forged sleeve with internal teeth cut on its inside. The forged sleeves are normally two halves possessing internal gears in both of them. In certain cases the forged sleeve tends to remain a single piece. 2. Two hubs with external teeth containing the same number of teeth as in the internal gear is present with each one being mounted on the driven and driver shaft respectively. The tooth profile of the external teeth is normally crowned in order to take up more loads. 3. The entire assembly in normally enclosed and is provided with gaskets at the joints and O-rings at vantage points in order to prevent the leakage of the lubricant filled inside the coupling, 4. Lubrication plugs are provided at vantage points in order to lubricate the couplings during predetermined intervals of time. Tooth forms in the Coupling: Three types of external teeth are used in gear couplings. The only difference is the manufacturing methodology of the same. a.) Straight Teeth: The external teeth in the hub are straight. During the condition of misalignment in the coupling the contact pattern between the internal gear and the external gear tends to be line type of contact as shown in the figure. b.) Crowning with constant radius: The external teeth are barrel shaped with a constant radius in order to increase the area of contact and move the area of contact to a near middle portion of the teeth. c.) Crowning with variable radius: The external teeth are barrel shaped with a variable radius instead of constant radius. This increases the area of the contact significantly compared to that of the constant radius crowning. The maximum degree of misalignment permissible in gear couplings is from 0.5 Degrees to 1.5 Degrees. This varies with the size of the coupling being used. Selection procedure for gear coupling: The gear couplings are selected based on the torque ratings. 1. 1. The torque transmitted by the coupling is to be determined. 2. 2. Based on the application the appropriate service factor needs to be determined. A reference chart on the service factors is shown below. 3. 3. The equivalent torque is to be determined by multiplying the service factor with the torque transmitted. 4. 4. Select the coupling based on the equivalent torque value calculated. A reference selection chart is given below for example. JAW TYPE ELASTOMERIC COUPLING: This article deals with Jaw type Elastomeric coupling. The article describes the constructional aspects of the coupling and selection procedures. * Couplings are indispensable mechanical power transmission elements used for connecting shafts. Flexible couplings in particular are used in areas where misalignment needs to be accommodated (the flexibility is highly restricted based on the type of Elastomeric material used) and also to take up shock loads at the driven end, thus protecting the driving element like a motor or such. Jaw Type Couplings tend to have a flexible member or Elastomeric member between the two metal components. The flexible member is also called the â€Å"Spider.† The Spider material can be made from different types of rubber or plastic possessing varying degrees of hardness in order to suit the load carrying capacity of the system torsional characteristics. The constructional features of the Jaw type coupling are shown below. The dimensional drawing as wel l as the nomenclature of the coupling is also enclosed. Here as some of the key aspects on the constructional features of the Jaw type coupling. These points are to be considered for the proper selection of a coupling. – The metal hub is constructed of sintered iron, cast iron, or aluminium or stainless steel. The type of metal hub is mainly based on the area of operation of the coupling and its inertia aspects. – The spider is normally made up of a nonmetallic element like rubber, urethane, hytrel because of their Elastomeric properties and in very rare cases bronze is used. BEAM COUPLING: A beam coupling A beam coupling, also known as helical coupling, is a flexible coupling for transmitting torque between two shafts while allowing for angular misalignment, parallel offset and even axial motion, of one shaft relative to the other. This design utilizes a single piece of material and becomes flexible by removal of material along a spiral path resulting in a curved flexible beam of helical shape. Since it is made from a single piece of material, the Beam Style coupling does not exhibit the backlash found in some multi-piece couplings. Another advantage of being an all machined coupling is the possibility to incorporate features into the final product while still keep the single piece integrity. Changes to the lead of the helical beam provide changes to misalignment capabilities as well as other performance characteristics such as torque capacity and torsional stiffness. It is even possible to have multiple starts within the same helix. The material used to manufacture the beam coupling also affects its performance and suitability for specific applications such as food, medical and aerospace. Materials are typically aluminum alloy and stainless steel, but they can also be made in acetal, maraging steel and titanium. The most common applications are attaching encoders to shafts and motion control for robotics. Oldham Animated Oldham coupler An Oldham coupling has three discs, one coupled to the input, one coupled to the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first two by tongue and groove. The tongue and groove on one side is perpendicular to the tongue and groove on the other. The middle disc rotates around its center at the same speed as the input and output shafts. Its center traces a circular orbit, twice per rotation, around the midpoint between input and output shafts. Often springs are used to reduce backlash of the mechanism. An advantage to this type of coupling, as compared to two universal joints, is its compact size. The coupler is named for John Oldham who invented it in Ireland, in 1821, to solve a paddle placement problem in a paddle steamer design. * * it is recommended to use manufacturer’s alignment target values to set up the machine train to a defined non-zero alignment, due to the fact that later when the machine is at operation temperature the alignment condition is perfect Coupling maintenance and failure Coupling maintenance is generally a simple matter, requiring a regularly scheduled inspection of each coupling. It consists of: * Performing visual inspections, checking for signs of wear or fatigue, and cleaning couplings regularly. * Checking and changing lubricant regularly if the coupling is lubricated. This maintenance is required annually for most couplings and more frequently for couplings in adverse environments or in demanding operating conditions. * Documenting the maintenance performed on each coupling, along with the date.[2] Even with proper maintenance, however, couplings can fail. Underlying reasons for failure, other than maintenance, include: * Improper installation * Poor coupling selection * Operation beyond design capabilities.[2] The only way to improve coupling life is to understand what caused the failure and to correct it prior to installing a new coupling. Some external signs that indicate potential coupling failure include: * Abnormal noise, such as screeching, squealing or chattering * Excessive vibration or wobble * Failed seals indicated by lubricant leakage or contamination.[2] Checking the coupling balance Couplings are normally balanced at the factory prior to being shipped, but they occasionally go out of balance in operation. Balancing can be difficult and expensive, and is normally done only when operating tolerances are such that the effort and the expense are justified. The amount of coupling unbalance that can be tolerated by any system is dictated by the characteristics of the specific connected machines and can be determined by detailed analysis or experience.

Russian Orthodox Church essays

Russian Orthodox Church essays The Russian Orthodox Church's history and development, which established it as an arm of the Tsarist state and an instrument of the perpetuation of Russia's unequal class system and anti-reform policies, made it a necessary object of destruction for the security of the Bolshevik revolution. The myth of the Holy Russian land was the founding idea of the Muscovite tsardom as it was developed by the Romanovs from the start of the seventeenth century. After the civil war and Polish intervention during the Time of Troubles (1598-1613), Mikhail Romanov, as the legend went, was elected by the entire Russian population, therefore reuniting the Holy Russian land behind the Romanov dynasty and saving Orthodox Russia from the Catholics. (Carr 125). The idea of Russia as a holy land contributed to the Tsars position not as a king ruling with a divine right, but a god on earth. There was, in fact, a tradition in Russia of canonizing princes who died pro patria et fides. Tsars used Church laws to persecute political opponents, unlike the Western rulers of this time. Peter the Great later tried to reform relations between Church and state in an attempt to Westernize Russia, transferring the Churchs administration from the patriarchate to the Holy Synod (this was completed by Catheri ne II). This body of laymen and clergy, with its secular representative being the Procurator-General, was appointed by the Tsar and served as a faithful tool. It was in the Churchs best interests not to protest this subordination to the state, as during the latter half of the eighteenth century it had lost most of its land and now relied on the state to support its 100,000 parish clergy and their families (Curtiss Russian Church... 21) . With most of the population being illiterate, the Church was an essential propaganda weapon and a means of social control. Priests were ordered to denounce from the pulpit dissent and oppositio...

Language and Gender Definitions and Discussions

Language and Gender Definitions and Discussions Language and gender is an interdisciplinary field of research that studies varieties of speech (and, to a lesser extent, writing) in terms of gender, gender relations, gendered practices, and sexuality. In The Handbook of Language and Gender (2003), Janet Holmes and Miriam Meyerhoff discuss the shift that has occurred in the field since the early 1970sa movement away from essentialist and dichotomous conceptions of gender to a differentiated, contextualized, and performative model which questions generalized claims about gender. What Are Language and Gender Studies? Regarding gender, extensive research on language, culture, and identity has sought to uncover the logic of the encoding of sex differences in languages, to analyze the oppressive implications of ordinary speech, to explain miscommunication between men and women, to explore how gender is constructed and interacts with other identities, and to investigate the role of language in helping establish gender identity [as] part of a broader range of processes through which membership in particular groups is activated, imposed, and sometimes contested through the use of linguistic forms . . . that activate stances ([Alessandro] Duranti 2009: 30-31). Other work explores how language is used to reproduce, naturalize, and contest gender ideologies, drawing from many disciplinary perspectives . . .. Critical discourse, narrative, metaphor, and rhetorical analysis have been used to examine other gendered dimensions of processes of meaning making, such as gender bias in cell biology (Beldecos et al . 1988) and factory farm industry language used to conceal violence (Glenn 2004).(Christine Mallinson and Tyler Kendall, Interdisciplinary Approaches. The Oxford Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by Robert Bayley, Richard Cameron, and Ceil Lucas. Oxford University Press, 2013) Doing Gender We act out gender roles from a continuum of masculine and feminine characteristics; we are therefore gendered and we are involved in the process of our own gendering and the gendering of others throughout our lives. In the field of  gender and language use, this performance of gender is referred to as doing gender. In many ways we are rehearsed into our gender roles, like being prepared for a part in a play: gender is something we do, not something we are (Bergvall, 1999; Butler, 1990). Over our lives and particularly in our early formative years, we are conditioned, prompted and prodded to behave in acceptable ways so that our gender, and our communitys acceptance of it, aligns with our ascribed sex. [S]ome scholars in the field question the distinction that sex is a biological property and gender is a cultural construct, and both terms continue to be contested . . ..(Allyson Julà ©, A Beginners Guide to Language and Gender. Multilingual Matters, 2008) The Dangers of Abstraction Our diagnosis is that gender and language studies suffer from the same problem as that confronting sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics more generally: too much abstraction. Abstracting gender and language from the social practices that produce their particular forms in given communities often obscures and sometimes distorts the ways they connect and how those connections are implicated in power relations, in social conflict, in the production and reproduction of values and plans. Too much abstraction is often symptomatic of too little theorizing: abstraction should not substitute for theorizing but be informed by and responsive to it. Theoretical insight into how language and gender interact requires a close look at social practices in which they are jointly produced. (Sally McConnell-Ginet, Gender, Sexuality, and Meaning: Linguistic Practice and Politics. Oxford University Press, 2011) Background and Evolution of Language and Gender Studies In the United States during the late 1960s and early 1970s, women began to examine and critique societal practices that supported gender discrimination in consciousness-raising groups, in feminist cells, in rallies and media events (see [Alice] Echols, 1989, for a history of the womens movement in the United States). In the academy, women and a few sympathetic men started to examine the practices and methods of their disciplines, subjecting them to similar critiques for similar ends: the elimination of societal inequities based upon gender. The study of language and gender was initiated in 1975 by three books, the latter two of which have continued to significantly influence sociolinguistic work: Male/Female Language (Mary Ritchie Key), Language and Womens Place (Robin Lakoff), and Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance (Barrie Thorne and Nancy Hedley, Eds.). . . . Overly dichotomous ideas of gender pervade Western society in ways that must be challenged. Because, however, it is important that challenging exaggerated notions of difference does not simply result in women assimilating to male, or mainstream, norms, feminist scholars must simultaneously document and describe the value of attitudes and behaviors long considered feminine. In doing so, feminist scholars challenge their exclusive association with women and point out their value for all people.(Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny, Language and Gender. Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching, ed. by Sandra Lee McKay and Nacy H. Hornberger. Cambridge University Press, 1996) In the first phase of language/gender research, Many of us were eager to piece together an overall portrayal of differences in the speech of women and men. We invented notions like genderlect to provide overall characterizations of sex differences in speech (Kramer, 1974b; Thorne and Henley, 1975). The genderlect portrayal now seems too abstract and overdrawn, implying that there are differences in the basic codes used by women and men, rather than variably occurring differences, and similarities.(Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae, and Nancy Henley, 1983; quoted by Mary Crawford in Talking Difference: On Gender and Language. SAGE, 1995)Interactional sociolinguistics [IS] serves as one of many theoretical orientations that have been drawn on to investigate gender and communication. The pioneering study of Maltz and Borker (1982) provided a starting point for [Deborah] Tannens (1990, 1994, 1996, 1999) writing on language and gender in which Tannen investigates interactions between women a nd men as a kind of cross-cultural communication and firmly establishes IS as a useful approach to gendered interaction. Her general audience book You Just Dont Understand (Tannen, 1990) offers insights into everyday communication rituals of speakers of both genders. Much like Lakoffs (1975) Language and Womens Place, Tannens work has fueled both academic and popular interest in the topic. In fact, language and gender research exploded in the 1990s and continues to be a topic receiving a great deal of attention from researchers using various theoretical and methodological perspectives (Kendall and Tannen, 2001).(Cynthia Gordon, Gumperz and Interactional Sociolinguistics. The SAGE Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by Ruth Wodak, Barbara Johnstone, and Paul Kerswill. SAGE, 2011) Language and gender studies have seen significant expansion to encompass sexual orientation, ethnicity and multilingualism, and, to some extent, class, involving analyses of spoken, written, and signed gendered identities.(Mary Talbot, Language and Gender, 2nd ed. Polity Press, 2010)

Adolescent Alcohol Abuse

Adolescent Alcohol Abuse Essay Adolescent Alcohol Abuse:What Factors are Present?Over the years, many researchers have dedicated their time and energy to study adolescent alcohol abuse. They have found that there are many factors that contribute to adolescent alcohol abuse. These factors are psychological, environmental, social, and cultural. Not all of these factors play a part in every adolescent who abuses alcohol, but one of these factors is usually present. Psychological disorders have been found in both American, and Taiwan adolescents who abuse alcohol. The health risks of adolescent alcohol abuse are great. Alcohol affects the physiology of a young person. It disrupts the genetics and hormonal balances that are critical in the early development of youngsters.Treatment of alcohol abuse is a great state of change and development. Many therapists, doctors and counselors are trying to incorporate new treatment ideas and methods into the traditional techniques that have been used for years now.It is important t o research the factors that contribute to adolescent alcohol abuse because if these factors are detected early, and an adolescent is put into a prevention program the likelihood that they will abuse alcohol will greatly decrease.Psychological Factors According to the research, there have been many psychological problems found in adolescents who abuse alcohol. The majority of the research has been done in order to solve the question of whether or not these psychological factors are present before an adolescent abuses alcohol, or after the alcohol abuse has occurred. In the research done by Rhode, Lewinsohn, and Seeley (1996), they used a community sample of 1,507 adolescents between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. The adolescents were classified into the categories of abstainers, experimenters, social drinkers, problem drinkers, and abuse and/or dependent groups. In this study, 373 subjects met the criteria for depression, 15 were bipolar, 93 suffered from manic core symptoms, and 124 had an anxiety disorder (Rhode et al., 1996). Furthermore, anxiety disorder and depression were psychological disorders that were more prevalent in female adolescents with alcohol abuse than their male counterparts.Males who abused alcohol tended to suffer from antisocial personality disorder. It is believed that females who suffer from anxiety disorder or depression use alcohol as a self-medication to make them feel better. According to Clark, and Bukstein (1998), one form of antisocial disorder known as conduct disorder lead adolescents to act out and seek out new experiences. This is probably the reason why adolescent males with an antisocial disorder turn to alcohol abuse. According to Rhode (et al., 1996), More than 80% of adolescents with an alcohol use disorder had another psychiatric disorder. (p. 106). In his study, the alcohol abuse tended to follow rather than proceed the psychiatric disorder. From this, it can be concluded that certain psychological disorders such as antisocial disorder, and depression are a factor in adolescent alcohol abuse. Environmental FactorsMany studies have focused on the environmental factors that adolescents are exposed to, and how these factors lead to alcohol abuse. The aim of a study performed by Clark, Lesnick, and Hegedus (1997), Was to examine trauma history and other adverse life events in adolescents with alcohol dependence or abuse and to compare them with a sample of community-dwelling adolescents without alcohol use disorder (p.1746). This study included 256 adolescents between the ages of fourteen and eighteen (Clark et al., 1997). Adolescents who abused, or were dependent on alcohol reported more traumas then those in the control group. The types of abuse experienced by males and females tended to differ. Females experienced more sexual abuse, and males tended to be victims of violent acts. Both sexual abuse victims, and victims of violent acts showed increased amounts of alcohol use than those adolescents who were not abused in any way. If subjects experienced a number of traumas, t hey tended to abuse alcohol more than those that experienced only one trauma or no trauma at all. From this study, it can be concluded that trauma and abuse leads to adolescent alcohol abuse. Social Factors A study done on Hispanic and Black adolescents in the New York inner cities concluded that there were indeed social factors that contributed to adolescent alcohol abuse. The study used a sample of 4,874 Hispanic and African

Individual Media Appraisal Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Individual Media Appraisal Report - Essay Example According to Mintel (2012), English wine has augmented in the market in the past few years. Also, UK wine consumers distinguish quality of English wine and think that it has improved. Moreover, purchasing English wines supports the local producers (Mintel, 2012). With the wide range of variety in English wines the producers known as the English Wine Producers (EWP) promote wines with the help of EWW i.e. English Wine Week (English Wine Week, 2013). It is a fact that EWW did not focus on attracting customers at large ground and this resulted in low awareness towards the growth of the industry. Digital marketing and poor idea communique resulted in a major setback to the EWW. The main media campaign objectives are To augment the awareness of EWW among UK consumers To increase the visitors and vineyard owners participation To improve database To improve communication media. 2. Appraisal of the media and schedule to be used for image and awareness media including reach of the target audi ence For maximum result of media awareness, our budget is divided into Digital Media Awareness and Traditional Media Awareness with a total of ?98,920.20. The breakdown is mentioned below. Traditional Media ?87,862.00 Digital Media ?11,058.20 Total ?98,920.20 The Media Awareness is justified in this section. Awareness Campaign is divided into magazine ads, social media campaign, email awareness marketing and poster media campaign. These are designed to raise awareness and generate direct response. Newspaper advertising is planned to function as a tool to increase awareness in general only. 2.1 Newspaper: Â   In this project advertising in newspaper is of utmost importance. It will help in raising participation of vineyard owners in the EWW. Also, it will make many people and local bodies aware of the events and importance of English Wine Week. The project plans to advertise a small size of ad space and run it repeatedly in The Sun newspaper. Also ads in the general news section for six weeks before the EWW will help in awareness, interest and participation of both EWP and UK based customers. This will include 5 mono ads SCC (Run of week) and 1 full-page coloured (run of week). The socioeconomic group ABs is more likely to get targeted with this media campaign than C1

Social and Physical Benefits of Parks and Recreation Space Research Paper

Social and Physical Benefits of Parks and Recreation Space - Research Paper Example r, is not always the case in the country because many parks continue to suffer from lack of essential recreational facilities or over-emphasis on the natural environment at the expense of modern park facilities for sports and other modern forms of recreation (Godbey et al., 2008). The major problem is that irrespective of the relative development of many other public facilities in urban areas in the country, recreational parks still remain largely underdeveloped and traditional. The lack of modern facilities and other incentives in parks is keeping many people especially of the young generation from sufficiently utilizing these essential public spaces. 1.2 Research Questions This study was aimed at answering the following questions; 1) What is the role of recreational parks in urban neighborhoods in the area of study? 2) Is there optimum utilization of recreational parks in the area? 3) What are the challenges facing recreational parks in the study area? 4) What steps can be taken to modernize recreational parks for optimum value to the communities they serve? 1.3 Purpose of Study The purpose of this paper is to investigate the social and physical benefits of parks and urban green recreation spaces in the United States. The study involves comparative investigation of a number of public parks in residential neighborhoods of Los Angeles whereby various essential parameters of the parks are studied. This includes space allocated for the parks, facilities within the parks and the space allocated to each of the facilities, the number of people utilizing the parks and their mix in terms of age and race. The study also includes other characteristics related to the parks including issues such as crime and health. 2.0 Literature Review In view of the importance of parks as... The purpose of this paper is to investigate the social and physical benefits of parks and urban green recreation spaces in the United States. The study involves comparative investigation of a number of public parks in residential neighborhoods of Los Angeles whereby various essential parameters of the parks are studied. This includes space allocated for the parks, facilities within the parks and the space allocated to each of the facilities, the number of people utilizing the parks and their mix in terms of age and race. The study also includes other characteristics related to the parks including issues such as crime and health.In view of the importance of parks as areas for recreation and environmental conservation, many studies are increasingly being carried out to highlight their physical and social benefits to the society as well as improve their management.Urban nature in the form of parks, forests, and green belts, and its components such as trees and water, positively impacts the environment and ecology of a region. It accomplishes â€Å"important environmental services such as air and water purification, the wind and noise filtering, and microclimate stabilization†. Thus, parks promote physical health by providing green spaces and fresh air for exercising and walking and increase social well-being through opportunities for interacting with neighbors and peers at a shared, common location. The social and psychological services of parks and recreation are vital for the livability of modern cities.

Conflict Resolution Interviews, Field Experience Activity, the Three C Essay

Conflict Resolution Interviews, Field Experience Activity, the Three Cs of Conflict Resolution - Essay Example Conflicting parties capitalize on others deficiencies as well as intensifying painful emotions. Conflicts could also satisfy the psychological needs of those indirectly involved. Fix solutions to these conflicts comprise of considering the consequences, which helps in avoidance of negative outcomes thereby solving the conflict. In addition, dialogue, mediation and negotiation could be employed in resolving conflicts between personnel (Morrill 245-256). The principal’s role in dealing with conflicts entails an integrative and collaborative process as well as the discipline of decision making as elements of strategic leadership. These aspects of leadership enable the principal to adopt, define, and understand shared managerial purposes, goals, and priorities based on the vision and identity of the human resource personnel. The principal’s role in conflict resolution, therefore, encompasses elements of human values, information, responsibility and responsiveness, organizational culture as well as conceptual and integrative thinking. The principal’s key responsibility revolves around his ability to communicate effectively with stakeholders, faculty, and students. Communication strategies have offered numerous opportunities for non-campus or central office based interns’ improvement plans. The principal could influence interns’ through their relationships, credibility, expertise, and knowledge. In addition, the principal could generate new realities for interns concerning the campus activities and its organization. Communication strategies also enable the principal to understand and use appropriate tactics in dealing with interns in writing and orally. Communication systems take into account other people’s points of views as well as acknowledging the different perspectives of both the principal and the stakeholders in providing their contributions.  Ã‚  

George W. Bush Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

George W. Bush - Essay Example This made an impact on the life of the young Bush. He also traveled far and wide soliciting donations and help from powerful people. (nurture) As a young boy, he was wise-cracking and strong-willed. This is due to his upbringing. He comes from a clan who is well-regarded in society. His constant companions were boys who belonged to politically-influential families and the elite in society. He was carefree, one time he was caught for painting a mustache in his face while in Music class. But he was a leader, President of his class and involved a lot in extra-curricular activities. Sometimes though, he was a problem to his mother because of some reports from school. As a college senior, Bush became a member of the secretive Skull and Bones, one of the oldest secret student societies in the United States whose past members included prominent personalities. He was described as extremely gregarious, but a notoriously poor dresser, made many friends, bridging the growing divide between the public school graduates who were entering Yale and the "preppies." He became a president of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and enjoyed parties, drinking, watching and playing football, and dating. He was booked on misdemeanor charge for being part of a prank that involved stealing a Christmas wreath for the frat house. Theories of Personality Freud's theory of personality - the Oedipal complex - works in this stage of the case study. The identification to the father is crucial in the development of the boy - the young Bush had incorporated the moral values and ideals of his president father and has identified himself to him, thus he himself struggled and worked hard to become president himself. As opposed to Freud's theory is the social learning theory which originated from the behavioral writings of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. According to this theory, the process of learning is of central importance to personality development. Social learning theorists believe that people are influenced by the situations they are in. Bush was much influenced by the situation he was in. He was a student leader - president of a class - and was involved in activities that would make him a leader and a prominent figure in American politics. This means that his personality was learned from school and the environment. The social learning view of personality is vastly different from that of the psychoanalysis of Freud. Freud's concept of psychoanalysis focused on the unconscious mind, or the developmental states that are of primary importance to psychoanalysis. But social learning theorists focus their study of development in learning. Personality is something that is learned, or, the sum total of all the ways that people learned to act, think and feel. It is called social learning because the process is learned from other people. Personality is no more than learned behavior and that the way to understand personality is simply to understand the processes of learning. To social learning theorists, the key concepts in the study of personality are not the id, ego, and superego, as espoused by Freud, but classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling. The

Society (Immigration) U.S Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Society (Immigration) U.S - Movie Review Example Avalon’s journey begins with a polish-Jewish family, laced up with strong family ties and attachment for almost every reason like love, respect, care and integrity. (Gustafson, 2004) Krachinsky’s clan moved to America and settled in Baltimore in 1914 with hopes and spirit to earn pleasure and harmony, wanted to experience the wonders of America and it limitless possibilities but unfortunately they faced unpleasant changes in their strong family network and no longer remained compassionate about their deep traditional roots. They multiplied into generations and got success in their financial statuses but faced some heartbreaking problems when their 2nd and 3rd generation moved away from family bounding and pursued for American ideology. Krachinsky brought along their fine cultural, traditional and religious values which were later eroded by the strong social forces and were replaced by the modernize American Culture. (Paul Haspel, 2008) The story revolves around three ma in changes that the family suffered through, firstly when the family started moving to suburbs, Secondly Levinson emphasized on the get together with the extended families on special days like thanksgiving or church days, was no longer practiced or enjoyed together on a long dinner table in fact, gradually shrunk to small tables after the arrival of television, Third and the main point was that the succeeding generation started replacing their family names. The youth was driven slowly and gradually into cultural assimilation where they forgot their roots and traditional practices and ran for the charisma that the American Society carries. The limelight of fast pace American life has always attracted people regardless of their beliefs. This is what impressed Sam when he first stepped in America and saw the biggest and brightest celebrations and he realized that he made the right decision. Later he was proven wrong when he experienced the harsh attitudes from his own son and his wife. Levinson has brilliantly pictured the generation gap with all its components like adaptation of new technological advancements, upgrading lifestyles by moving to suburbs and doing a white collar jobs, replacement of their own sir names and keeping American names. (Haspel, 2008) The detoriation of cultural heritage effected and poisoned Sam gradually and ultimately when he finally saw his grandson visiting him in old home. It is about all immigrants who face such issues like language difference, religious difference and on the whole color differences. Whatever the picture, media and Hollywood presents, the problems that immigrants from all around the world face remains there but they have no direct way to popularize it therefore the world accept the picture which is neatly painted by the American media that how immigrants have successfully accomplished in America, ignoring the fact that they have sacrificed their precious norms in terms of their moral, religious and cultural values to get this materialistic improvement in life. There is no doubt that American land is charismatic, full of glitz and glam but at the same time it heavily lacks family life and discipline of human life which can never lose its essence no matter how much we progress and achieve in our life. Levinson developed an awesome piece with a

Which came first law or social change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Which came first law or social change - Essay Example (Calavita 45) discuses the factor of racial classification in the fourth chapter titled â€Å"The Color of Law† where she explains how the differences in race apply in the immigration law and racial profiling. Legal pluralism is the existence of different legal systems that operate together simultaneously. These systems operate on different levels of the society and usually they do not contradict each other in their provisions. An example of a pluralist legislative system interaction is the United States of America federal system where federal state and local laws operate together. The legal system works to come into consensus with some legal issues, the legal issues here include the death penalty, rights, and gun control, and minimum wage policies. The other form of legal pluralism accepted globally across multiple jurisdictions, which include female genital mutilation, human trafficking, and environmental provisions. (Calavita 27) on her sixth chapter talks about application of law across individuals in society, she elaborates the difference between â€Å"law on books and law in action† apply. According to her, there are laws that allow unequal treatment of individuals in society. The law in this instance does not discriminate on race, sex nor class but its resulting action in the application due to its structure. Discrimination in this case becomes evident in the application of the law in a way that it favors the privileged at the cost of the disadvantaged. The courts in their decisions make them in a way to favor the haves. There is also sexual discrimination where the system favors men, and the women marginalized. Political and class biases are evident. (Calavita 88) Legal pluralism exposes the tension between the law and society. When individual across the boundaries and the law applicable contradicts with the current law or law to be applied seen to be

Society (Immigration) U.S Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Society (Immigration) U.S - Movie Review Example Avalon’s journey begins with a polish-Jewish family, laced up with strong family ties and attachment for almost every reason like love, respect, care and integrity. (Gustafson, 2004) Krachinsky’s clan moved to America and settled in Baltimore in 1914 with hopes and spirit to earn pleasure and harmony, wanted to experience the wonders of America and it limitless possibilities but unfortunately they faced unpleasant changes in their strong family network and no longer remained compassionate about their deep traditional roots. They multiplied into generations and got success in their financial statuses but faced some heartbreaking problems when their 2nd and 3rd generation moved away from family bounding and pursued for American ideology. Krachinsky brought along their fine cultural, traditional and religious values which were later eroded by the strong social forces and were replaced by the modernize American Culture. (Paul Haspel, 2008) The story revolves around three ma in changes that the family suffered through, firstly when the family started moving to suburbs, Secondly Levinson emphasized on the get together with the extended families on special days like thanksgiving or church days, was no longer practiced or enjoyed together on a long dinner table in fact, gradually shrunk to small tables after the arrival of television, Third and the main point was that the succeeding generation started replacing their family names. The youth was driven slowly and gradually into cultural assimilation where they forgot their roots and traditional practices and ran for the charisma that the American Society carries. The limelight of fast pace American life has always attracted people regardless of their beliefs. This is what impressed Sam when he first stepped in America and saw the biggest and brightest celebrations and he realized that he made the right decision. Later he was proven wrong when he experienced the harsh attitudes from his own son and his wife. Levinson has brilliantly pictured the generation gap with all its components like adaptation of new technological advancements, upgrading lifestyles by moving to suburbs and doing a white collar jobs, replacement of their own sir names and keeping American names. (Haspel, 2008) The detoriation of cultural heritage effected and poisoned Sam gradually and ultimately when he finally saw his grandson visiting him in old home. It is about all immigrants who face such issues like language difference, religious difference and on the whole color differences. Whatever the picture, media and Hollywood presents, the problems that immigrants from all around the world face remains there but they have no direct way to popularize it therefore the world accept the picture which is neatly painted by the American media that how immigrants have successfully accomplished in America, ignoring the fact that they have sacrificed their precious norms in terms of their moral, religious and cultural values to get this materialistic improvement in life. There is no doubt that American land is charismatic, full of glitz and glam but at the same time it heavily lacks family life and discipline of human life which can never lose its essence no matter how much we progress and achieve in our life. Levinson developed an awesome piece with a

Economic Urban Renewal Essay Example for Free

Economic Urban Renewal Essay During Urban renewal, what is in the best interest of the city is sometimes not in the best interest of many people in the City. And what is in the interest of the People is often not in the best interest of the City. Cities, or their disparate parts at varying rates, are always in one natural state of evolution or another: decline or renewal. Community organizations and individuals who have no expertise or experience in modern urban design and renewal have no place influencing the renewal agenda from an official capacity any more than a lawyer should be telling a doctor how to do neurosurgery on a sick patient. Urban Renewal and Design is a challenging and daunting endeavor even for the experts. Modern Renewal does not appease or allow a sense of entitlement by amateurs to meddle in the process from appointed political positions. Community groups with a sophisticated culture of urban economics and design should be invited into the process. A good example of this type of community group is the Design Advocacy Group in Philadelphia. Urban renewal is not a social welfare program. Social programs are already abundantly in existence for the needy in every City. Urban Renewal programs are special events. Urban Renewal programs co-opted by social activists will fail. Social programs masquerading as Renewal will eventually be exposed for what they are, with negative ramifications to follow, possibly inhibiting consideration of another renewal try any time in the foreseeable future. The same goes for political and institutional pork barrel projects masquerading as Renewal or Economic Recovery projects. Usually, the make up of the renewal board itself is a strong predictor of its direction, whether its makeup is weighted in favor of social community activists, politicians or known political cronies, representatives of major city institutions by proxy, or outside experts with no current or previous political or business ties to the region, no local constituency to appease, and with no continuing participation after achieving benchmarks. Even a so-called balanced board, that is, one that gives a seat to a representative of each of the citys major constituent groups, such as the major ethnic, political, business, religious, housing, social categories etc. may be cause for suspicion. These type of boards are mainly constituted to see that each gets its share of the pie, proclaiming unity while each pursues their own vision, going in separate directions while protecting their turf. A balanced board tends to neutralize, diminish and dilute the effectiveness of good plans in the compromising process of wheeling and dealing between groups. A balanced board that provides seats of influence to entitled non-experts is bound to fail. Body Urban renewal programs are historically almost orgiastic opportunities of cronyism and pork barrel corruption. Citizens, the Law and the Press must apply the highest scrutiny. Urban renewal is not a social experiment but a pro-business, free market enabler that attracts new businesses and residents, facilitated by physical redesign. Incentives intended to attract business into a renewal zone that contain local hiring requirements will find limited appeal, since the overwhelming majority of businesses want to be free to hire People based on their qualifications rather than their address. Urbanists recognize that individual economic and residential decisions are based on self-interest, and that successful renewal depends on the cumulative effect of thousands of individual decisions. Cities where community activists have a reputation for strong-arming new businesses will have a difficult time of renewal. The existing state of the City asks at any given moment, Why would anyone choose to live or operate a business here when they have the option to choose another locale? The City may ask the question, but only outside stakeholders can answer it. Urbanists need to identify outside stakeholders and get an accurate picture of what it will take for them to move into the City. Renewal planners must constantly adjust their plans to appease stakeholders outside the City as information suggests. Urban renewal is the removing of blight and creating high density, safe attractive walkable new neighborhoods and shopping districts through policy and design. It is for the immediate benefit of middle and upper class business owners and individuals who will settle and create a sufficient tax base to provide services in the future for all residents. These are shoppers, business owners and residents who do not yet have any presence in the City. In other words, present City residents and businesses must bite the bullet and make sacrifices for current outsiders to accrue future benefits. Every move in this direction speeds up the renewal process. The immediate target constituency for urban renewal programs lay outside the City, not in it. Todays residents will receive future benefits through others that cannot come to fruition any other way. Territorial attitudes and a sense of entitlement that attempt to keep outsiders at bay and keep benefits in will generate no benefits and further isolate Inner City poor from mainstream opportunities. Urban renewal efforts influenced by social service and affordable housing providers will come to resemble a social service program and be a complete turn-off to the regions middle and upper class. Renewal leaders who as politicians had a history of applying short term patches to long term problems, or who have a prior or newly established business relationship with large institutional beneficiaries of renewal funds, will find it hard to build trust with skeptical stakeholders, especially prominent business People with honed analytical skills. The history, business and political ties of Renewal leaders will play a large role as to informing stakeholders’ decisions. Without attracting a viable upper class from the region urban renewal is dead. Often used specious arguments by community activists such as we stayed and stood by the City during its hard times, now we deserve something†¦ is a thinly disguised parasitic, something for nothing attitude. People do not hesitate to move to a better neighborhood when they can. Renewal leaders who succumb to this victimology do the City and its good people a disservice while repelling desirable potential inhabitants. While large historical forces have shaped the American ghetto, this is the context in which some must deal with their problems, not an excuse for failure or benefits beyond the social sector. Life can be hard and harder for some, but Urban Renewal funds are not to be used as welfare funds or for public housing. That is what the local housing and welfare boards, with their separate and historical funding sources are for. Church and state are separate, the effects are happy, and they do not at all interfere with each other: but where they have been confounded together, no tongue nor pen can fully describe the mischiefs that have ensued (McAteer, 1975). No matter how many People attend church or work hard in some cites, it is a lack of architectural cohesion, wasted space in the form of parking lots and vacant lots, vandalism and other property crimes, burglary and thefts, the preponderance of illegal drug markets, violence, blight, rampant anti-social behaviors, tacky shoddy retail shops, gangs, unruly teenagers, school violence, illegitimacy and lack of a skilled and employable populace that creates the profile of a worst case inner City needing attention. These problems in turn lead to a lack of economic and social capital. Churches are valuable institutions in their historical role as spiritual guides, facilitators of personal transformation and, in urban areas, the delivery of social services. Serious Urbanists must ferret out the challenges of a city, divide them between the predictable and fixable (design) and the theoretical (social) and work on them separately, considering the two processes operate on wholly different timelines and practices. Social challenges, whose solutions are purely theoretical with no predictable outcome based on past history, are on a timeline of 20 years ( one generation) to infinity, ( or never, since poverty and its associated pathologies have been in existence on this planet since the beginning of mankind, despite the best intentions of policy makers throughout history. Urbanists should work on what is known and doable within the allotted time, and not engage in risky experimentation that may ruin a window of opportunity, leaving the larger social problems, those beyond which soundly designed built environments can positively effectuate to social theorists. Urban design and physical development is a proven methodology of urban change within a specified period. Desirable outside stakeholders are, almost by definition not in need of church social services. Therefore, churches should be considered in the social and theoretical People side of the renewal equation. Urbanists must be careful to avoid The Seattle Process, that is, the civic inclination to seek so much public input and consider so many sides of an argument that nothing actually gets done. A good Urbanist begins an operation with the same singular confidence of a surgeon opening a patient’s chest. Like a good doctor, a good Urbanist persuades a patient as to what is necessary for health, does not let the patient write his own prescriptions, and gains the patients trust and cooperation for the patients own good. Church organizations often become a default local government in dysfunctional cities, securing government and philanthropic contracts and fees to provide social services. Rather than being content with the compensation and intrinsic rewards for doing good works, when renewal funds become available, churches often subsume renewal efforts into their mission, demanding a cut of the economic pie, a seat at the political table, and influence to engineer social outcomes through shaky experimental theories. Too often opportunistic ministers, both storefront and traditional, subordinate their historical role to become real estate developers in the profitable non-profit housing industry. Successful at supplanting market oriented Licensed Planners in master-planning neighborhoods, whole areas are taken off the market and are assigned for low-income housing development and rehabilitation to benefit owners and tenants who cannot afford or dont maintain their properties. This does not correct the underlying problem, the inability of poor residents to maintain their properties, and resets to the beginning the deterioration cycle, which leads inevitably to another tax payer bailout. Churches also attempt to insert themselves as the moral arbiters of what the City should be, conflicting with equally legitimate visions of other stakeholders. Urbanist should not mediate the competing visions of others, but should know what the course of action is and concentrate on their own vision. Urbanist must take command of the situation. Only church organizations that understand the economics and design necessary to attract outsiders into the City should be part of the renewal team. No more than one, if any, church seat on the board should be allowed, which represents the aggregate voice of the City religious institutions, and only those institutions that understand outside stakeholder interests. This is a concept familiar to all People of faith and can contribute to renewal success. The board presence and influence of City churches without any renewal expertise beyond low-income housing services should be as limited as their experience. Urban renewal is difficult enough without allowing fake experts on board. A healthy adversarial relationship between social activists and Urbanists should be acknowledged. The basis for this differentiation is the recognition that the City also consists of buildings, streets, infrastructure, related public services and utilities such as street and sewer service, architecture, physical neighborhood design cohesion and allure, special districts, location and transportation assets, zoning laws, tax assessment considerations, finance, business attraction strategies, public relations, marketing activities and more that are far and away outside the purview and expertise of social scientists subsidized housing activists and theorists. The best organizational chart would group these varied disciplines into appropriate categories receiving specialized representation into People (Social) and City (Renewal). Let the chips fall where they may. Ubiquitous poverty is repellent to members of the Middle and Upper Class. To find themselves surrounded by poverty and blight is their worst nightmare. Urbanists must avoid including any plans or designs that provide or support poverty programs. This should be left to the social activists. Urbanists should not over-reach and attempt to do more than they are qualified for or have the resources to do, especially when duplicating existing organizations servicing that need. Urbanists should refrain from incorporating fuzzy social goals or any other programs that rely on rosy predictions that are hard to objectively justify. Whenever possible, Urbanists should present appropriately analogous models to support their position. Unlike Social Theory, which has applied uncountable programs, ideas and billions of dollars to distressed urban cores, the great majority of which have failed, it has been proven that graphic urban design codes serve as predictable guides for change. Intrusive blight and poverty, and its associated social pathologies are the overwhelming reason Isolated City renewal efforts fail. Isolated City in this context can be defined as a City that has no existing viable and attractive residential, commercial or arts areas to build out from. Isolated Cities are the least likely to have a successful renewal and must pull out all the stops in areas of design and incentives to attract outside stakeholders (Lees, 1985). Regional poor move to areas that have a culture of the poor, where they feel less stigmatized and self-conscious, and can find and bond comfortably with others in familiar situations. The abundance of support services for the poor further encourages settlement. Above all, poor people gravitate to areas where they can afford to live, bringing with them all the psychological and social pathologies of such a tough and sad existence. Concentrations of poverty also are, to a great degree, the end result of old racist traditions, expressed in public policies and business practices decades earlier. Zoning laws, and the open discriminatory practice of suburban real estate agents refusing to sell to minorities, post WWII through the 1970s, established the present ethnic and socio-economic configuration of urban areas and suburbs. This law contains loopholes for developers and communities with an anti low income housing bias. In light of history and current practices, a solid argument can be made for compensation to certain classes and groups who have inherited the terrible ramifications of this process. However, Renewal Funds and plans are an inappropriate source. No Urban Renewal effort has ever received enough funding to do as much as is needed, and cannot take on the added burden of compensating for societys misdeeds. Failed urban renewal cycles are more the rule than the exception, and the heavy and counter-productive hand of poverty services has played a major part in their failures. In some cities however, with every cycle they have become more expert in inserting themselves into the mix. With such limited vision partners unschooled in economics as gate-keepers, it is no wonder that the full complexity, serendipity and dynamics of market forces, investors, individual visions, entrepreneurial endeavors and regional participation rarely gets a shot at involvement before the renewal steam runs out. Social activists truly committed to helping the urban poor should consider helping them relocate out of distressed cities and into settings more conducive to pursuing life, liberty and happiness. Where life is risky, and crime reduces liberty, pursuit of happiness is severely hampered. It is time to form a moral argument free of bile and acrimony and take it to the outlying regions that owe their lifestyles to regional social problem repositories in urban areas. If troubled cities are to make a comeback, the outward migration of urban poor must begin, coinciding with an inflow of self-reliant urban pioneers. Nothing less than a 1960s style movement in scope and argument will do. Considering the historic resistance to minorities and the poor in the suburbs, the argument should be taken to suburban churches first. Presented with a compelling and irrefutable moral argument, these churches must accept it or reveal a moral, ethical and religious hypocrisy. Here, urban community development activists and church organizations have an important role. In a best case scenario, the suburban churches will spearhead the drive for the end of segregation and integration into their neighborhoods (Davis, 2000). Urbanites in communities with strong values should not fear their values will be overpowered by the pathologies of poverty, but instead will be a powerful influence for good to all who are exposed to them. Any City with a publicly assisted populace of more than 20% must create programs to promote an outflow to the suburbs to have any chance of renewal. Cities can begin by freezing growth of the poverty service industry. Inner City residents who move to stable communities can immediately enjoy the benefits of mainstream American life and its opportunities for building social capital, instead of waiting and taking the risk that renewal benefits, years off into the future, may not materialize at all. Minorities can be assured that modern day discrimination is relatively weak, and is based more on behavior than race. No City can accomplish operational self-sufficiency with a subsidized population exceeding 20%. Courts and legislative bodies recognize the deleterious and burdensome effects of a low income housing market above 20%, by capping obligations at this point. The questionable history of subsidized housings premier programs and experienced practitioners should be enough to scare off Urbanists from getting caught up in it. HUD program known as Section 108 which allows block-grant communities to raise money for loans by floating HUD-backed notes, has a staggering 59 percent default rate. Although government programs are expected to make riskier bets than private banks (whose loan-default rates are typically in the low single digits), the stratospheric failure rate of HUD loans amounts to a squandering of millions of taxpayer dollars, since taxpayers are on the hook for these loan guarantees. It is a rare suburb that has a subsidized housing population approaching anywhere near 20%. The higher a Citys low income housing stock, the less the area appeals to potential newcomers who do not depend on public assistance. Helping as many poor to move out of the City and into better neighborhoods is an important social mission that should endure through all times. It is a mission separate from Urban renewal and should not be commingled.

Networking And Routing Protocols

Networking And Routing Protocols At present, internet plays a vital role in many of our daily life. It made a dramatic revolution on communication which we enjoy today. The revolution offered web appliances, e-commerce, video conferences, online gaming and so on. All these became possible and operating on the backbone called networks. On the first hand, before discussing about routing and routing protocols well go through and networking. Initially U.S. government funded researches on sharing information within computers for scientific and military[1] purposes. Though there were many contributed to the foundation of internet J. C. R. Licklider was the first among them. As a leader of Information Processing Technology Office (IPTO) he demonstrated the concept of time sharing and promoted the researches and concepts on networking. Time sharing made a major evolution in the IT world. It became the basis for networking as well. Licks successors as leaders of IPTO, Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor influenced by Intergalactic Network lead the researches of Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)s IPTO. The three people Paul Baran, Leonard Kleinrock and Donald Davies developed fundamentals for ARPANET with their own concepts such as packet switching and so on. After continuous researches on implementation of networks, the first ARPANET interconnected and became success in 1969. Being limited for military and research purposes by universities ARPANET has gone through several modifications and adopted many mechanisms. By 1990 networks gradually became for public and from their several other technologies emerged based on networks. When the networks used by general public, it began to grow massive and more complex. So there was a need for a man in the middle kind of device to handle the routes for networks. So that experts coined the device called router. Router is a networking device used to forward the data to an interface to route the data towards its destination. Again the network administrator had to do a hectic job of adding static routes and updating each and every route in a network. For instance, if a link goes down all the routers should be updated manually to cope with it. So to handle these messy situations experts came up with the routing protocols. Though there were plenty of contributors and technology shifts in various occasions in the industry, the above paragraphs covers the milestones in the history. Routing Concept Routing is the process of directing a packet towards the destination with the help of router. The router receives a packet from one interface, determine which interface to be forwarded based on routing algorithm and destination address and then send the packet to the interface. To route a packet the router should satisfy at least following, Router should know Destination address subnet mask Discover Neighbor routers where it can identify the routes for remote routers Identify all possible routes for all remote networks The best path for routing the packet The process of maintaining and verifying the routing table and routing information In general, routing can be categorized as static and dynamic routing. Static routing is the process of adding the routes manually in the router table. The Static routes have the administrative distance of 1 by default. IP route 172.16.30.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.20.2 Dest n/w subnet mask next hope Static routing has no overhead on router CPU or bandwidth of the link and secure compared to dynamic routing. However, static routing doesnt have fault tolerant and its a tedious job to add routes manually. In a wide area network, adding all the routes is definitely a hardest job. Then again when a topology changes or a link goes down again the network administrator have to run all over the place to update. However in some scenarios, static routing remains handy. For instance, in stub networks where all the traffic routed towards a gateway static routing is inevitable with default routes. So static routing consume less resources, easy to configure, more secure and can handle multiple networks. Default routing is a category of static routing where only the exiting interface is specified. IP route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial1 Dest n/w Subnet Exit interface Administrative distance for default routing is 0. Default routing is used to send packets to remote networks when the router doesnt have information about it on routing table. The next crucial, widely used category is dynamic routing which is concerned in this project. Dynamic routing is the process of keeping the routing table up to date with instant updates from routing protocols. These protocols dynamically share the information and able to update the routing table when topology changes occur. Further, these protocols determine the best path based on metric calculations. So that dynamic routing protocols remain crucial in large scale corporate networks to update their routing tables. Dynamic routing protocols provide fault tolerance by broadcasting updates when links goes down or server shutdown. To update the router tables the routing protocols define the rules for communicating with the neighbor routers. The rules specify the method and algorithm to exchange information between neighbors. All in all though dynamic protocols consume more CPU power and bandwidth when compared, they are robust and more reliable in networks, especially large scale. Routin g protocols can be categorized in various ways based on their characteristics. Initially, protocols can be divided into routing and routed protocols. Routed protocols are responsible for actual data transfer. The protocols under this category are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, and apple talk. Routing protocols exchange the routing information between routers. They include RIP, RIP v.2, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF BGP and so on. Further dynamic protocols can be classified as, Interior gateway protocols (IGP) and Exterior gateway protocol(EGP) Class-full and Class-less Distance vector ,Link-state and hybrid protocols IGP and EGP are characterized based on autonomous system. Autonomous system (AS) is the collection of networks within one administrative domain. IGP protocols are used to exchange router information between same AS number and EGP is between different AS numbers. Rip, Rip v.2, IGRP, EGRP, OSPF, IS-IS come under IGP and BGP is under EGP. Class-full routing protocols do not advertise the subnet mask but class-full address in advertisement. Class-less protocols advertise subnet mask. RIP and IGRP are class-full and RIP v.2 EIGRP, OSPF and IS-IS are classless. The other important characterization is Distance vector, Link state and hybrid. Distance vector protocols Advertise periodically Advertise full routing table Advertise only for directly connected routers High convergence time Limited no of hops Suffer from routing loop Do not establish neighbor relationship Protocols RIP, IGRP Link state protocols Advertise only when network triggered Advertise only the update Flood the advertisement Convergence is low No limits in hop count and suitable for large network No routing loops Establish neighbor relation in formal way Protocols OSPF IS-IS Hybrid protocols Its a combination of both Distance vector and Link-state. EIGRP share such routing characteristics. Dynamic routing Protocols Routing Information Protocol (RIPv1) Routing information protocol version 1 known as RIP is the initial routing protocol to be implemented in ARPANET in 1967. As classified before RIP is a class-full, distance vector and interior gateway protocol (IGP). RIP was developed based on Bellman-Ford algorithm and use hop count as the metric value. It uses the lowest hop count to calculate the best path. Rip limits the number of hosts it supports in a network to prevent routing loops and maintain stability. It supports a maximum of 15 hops in a network. 16th hop is defined as in infinite administrative distance and they become unreachable and un-shareable. It uses broadcast address 255.255.255.255 to send updates between routers. Administrative distance for RIP is 120. Rip use several timers in the advertising and updating process. Routing update timer, route timeout timer, and route flush timer are the timers used by RIP. Routing update timer is used to determine the time interval between each update from rip implemented router. Usually a full update is sent every 30 seconds from router. This became a problem when all the routers simultaneously try to send updates every 30 seconds and consuming the bandwidth since they are synchronized. So that when the timer is reset random time is added in addition to the 30 seconds to prevent such congestion. Route timeout timer is the time frame until a record remains valid before it gets an update with same record. If the router doesnt get the update again within the time frame router marks the record for deletion and hold it until the flush time expire. After the flush time expires the record will be purged permanently from the table. Rip protocol preserve stability by limiting the number of hops to prohibit routing loops propagation. RIP implements split horizon, route poisoning and timing mechanisms to prevent erroneous information propagation. However, limitation on number of hops becomes a setback in large scale networks. Limiting only to class-full advertising is another drawback in RIP. Further, routing updates are not capable for authentication process which is a security concern with version1. Despite rip being emerged ages ago it still exists in routers. Because it is easy to configure, stable, suits well for stub networks and widely used. Routing Information Protocol (RIPV2) Rip version 2 was standardized and released in 1993 due to lack of some important features in version 1 as mentioned above. Version 2 is an enhancement for variable length subnet masking (VLSM). Ripv2 designed to support classless routing with subnet masks which was a critical update from earlier version. Version2 updates carry more information with simple authentication enabled on it. It uses multicast address 224.0.0.9 to send updates. Multicasting avoids the hosts which are not part of routing from receiving update. This version also maintains the maximum number of hops to 15. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Routing Protocol Open shortest past first (OSPF) plays a key role in IP networks for several reasons. It was drafted to be used with the internet protocol suite with high functionality as a non proprietary protocol. OSPF is an interior gateway routing protocol which routes packets between the same autonomous systems. It has an administrative distance of 110. It is designed to fully support VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking) or CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing).Also it supports for manual summarized advertisement. Its a link state protocol. So it scales well[2], converges quickly and offer loop free routing. On a topology change or link down it converges quick enough to provide a new loop free route. It uses cost to calculate the metric value. The shortest path is calculated based on Dijkstra algorithm to find the best path. OSPF use multicast addresses for updates. The addresses are, 224.0.0.5 is for sending updates and 224.0.0.6 is to receive updates. OSPF maintains three types of tables namely, routing table, neighbor table and database table. It uses Hello protocol to establish neighbor relation and maintain a neighbor table. Hello protocols attributes are, Router ID Priority (default 1) Hello interval (10 sec) Dead interval (40 sec) Authentication bit Stub area flag Process ID The relationship is established based on the router ID. To establish a neighbor relationship timers (hello dead), network mask, area ID and authentication password should be same. It uses area to communicate among routers. OSPF can be configured as single area or multi-area network. Areas are introduced to constrain the flooding of update into a single area. An OSPF domain is split into areas and labeled with 32 bit identifiers to limit the updates and calculation of best path with Dijkstra algorithm into one area. Areas should be carefully designed and configured to group the hosts and routers to a logical area. Each area maintains its own link state database which is distributed via a connecting router to other networks. Such design reduces the traffic flow between areas and keeps the topology anonymous to other areas. In single area OSPF the entire interface in that network belongs to same network. The diagram below explains a configuration in single area OSPF. In multi-area, all other areas must connect to the back bone area (area 0) directly or virtually. The diagram below is a sample of multi-area configuration. A multiple area OSPF must contain at least one backbone / zero area and may have several non-backbones. Zero area remains as the core area for all the other areas. All the other areas connect to backbone area to get updated. OSPF allows configuring stub networks as well. In OSPF stub networks external updates are not flooded in to the stub area. This will result in reducing the size of database size and thereby memory consumption. When stub network area is configured default routing will be used to connect to the external areas. OSPF defines the following router states, Area border router (ABR) Autonomous system boundary router (ASBR) Internal router (IR) Backbone router (BR) The routers could play one or more roles as mentioned above in an OSPF network. The router identifier should be defined in a dotted decimal format to associate each OSPF instance with an ID. If it is not explicitly specified, the highest logical IP will be assigned as the router ID. Area border router (ABR) is the common router which placed on the edge of the backbone area to connect other areas via its interfaces. The ABR keeps a copy of the link state databases of both the backbone and of the areas which it is connected to in its memory. Autonomous system boundary router (ASBR) is the router which connects an autonomous system and a non-OSPF network. ASBR remains as a gateway to connect an AS to other routing protocol networks such as EIGRP, RIP, BGP, static and so on. It also used to exchange routes which it learned from other AS number through its own AS number. The router which has all its interfaces and neighbor relationship within an area is called as Internal Router (IR). All the routers which are part of the backbone area are backbone router (BR). It may be a backbone internal router or an area border router. ABR is also a BR since it is connected to backbone via a physical or logical link. From OSPF configurations the routers elect designated router (DR) and backup designated router (BDR). A designated router (DR) is elected on a multi-access network segment to exchange routing information with other routers. The job of the DR is multicasting the router update which it received to the other routers. So other routers listen only to the DR instead of listening to broadcast. DR elected to act as one-to-many instead of many-to-many routing update. So updates are sent only to the DR router and it updates all the routers within the segment. This election mechanism reduces the network traffic a lot. The router with the highest priority among the routers will be elected as the Designated Router. If more than one router has same priority Router ID will be used as the tie breaker. In multi access networks Backup designated router (BDR) must be elected next. BDR is a standby router for DR if DR becomes unavailable. The router which becomes the second in the election process will be the BDR. If both become unavailable the election process will be held again. The BDR receives updates from adjacent routers but doesnt multicast them. OSPF adjacency is established to share the routing updates directly to each other. Establishing adjacency depends on the OSPF configuration in routers. From OSPF configuration point of view networks can be categorized as, Broadcast multi-access In broadcast multi-access networks routers have direct access to all the routers via direct links. Some of the examples for Broadcast multi-access are Ethernet, and Token ring. Through Ethernet multiple devices are allowed to access the same network. So when an OSPF packet is sent on the network itll be broadcasted and all the routers will receive it. With OSPF DR and BDR should be elected for broadcast multi-access network. Non-broadcast Multi Access (NBMA) NBMA network allows data transmission over a virtual link or across a switching device between the hosts in the network. Typical examples for NBMA are X.25, ATM and Frame relay. In NBMA, all the devices are connected through a shared medium. It doesnt support broadcast or multicast. Instead, OSPF sends the hello packet to each router in the network one at a time. As a result OSPF should be configured specially and the neighbor relationship should be specified properly. Power Line Communication (PLC) is also categorized as Non-broadcast Multiple Access network. Point-to-point In Point-to-point connections, both routers endpoints are connected point to point to provide a single path for communication. High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) could be the examples for P2P. In point to point network, it may be a serial cable connecting the endpoints directly or a virtual link which connects two routers apart in greater distance. But both scenarios eliminate the need for election of DR and BDR in OSPF implementation. The neighbors will be identified automatically with P2P. Point-to-multipoint Point-to-multipoint topology refers to connecting a single interface of a router to multiple destination routers. All the devices in Point-to-multipoint will be in a same network. Conventionally the routers could identify their neighbors automatically in broadcast network. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a proprietary, hybrid protocol owned by Cisco. It was developed by CISCO as a successor of IGRP. Though its not a version of IGRP; its completely different. It behaves as both link state and distance vector protocol. Its a classless protocol as well. Administrative distance for EIGRP is 90. It exercises a different algorithm from previous protocols which is known as Diffusing update algorithm (DUAL). DUAL algorithm ensures to find the best path with faster convergence and loop free routing. EIGRP supports unequal cost balancing as well. It uses multicast address 224.0.0.0 to send updates. EIGRP also use autonomous system number. It maintains three types of tables, Neighbor table maintains data about the neighboring routers which are directly connected and accessible. Hello packets with timers are employed to keep the record with precision. Topology table The topology table contains all the destinations advertised by its neighbor routers. It maintains the table as an aggregation of all advertised routes with adjoining metrics. In addition from the aggregation a successor and feasible successor will be identified and stored. The successor path is the best path to reach a destination based on the least sum of advertised distance from a neighbor and the distance to reach that neighbor. This route will be installed in the router. The optional feasible successor has the metric higher than successor, which qualify to be the next successor. This route doesnt get installed but kept in the topology table as an alternative. The router will automatically add the feasible route as successor when the successor becomes unavailable. The state of a route for destination can be marked as active or passive in the table. When the router find successor unavailable with no backup routes it query the neighbor routers. This state is called a s active and when it gets a reply it changes to passive state. This whole process ensures a loop free path for destinations. Routing table This table store the actual routes for all destinations. This table is build from the previous topology table calculation. A successor route and an optional feasible route will be stored in this table. Network Modelling Basically Network modelling is a main concept of network deployment into network planning, designing and implementation. Modelling is used to describe concept of the project. Network analysis and network designing should be defined before create network modelling. Define the requirements, objectives and problem areas should be created in network analysis part. So at this stage describe about the router and routing concept towards how they are using routing protocol to route the packets and how to configure with those routing protocols. After this stage implementation part considers all fulfil requirements. Finally design part where we define appropriate network deployment. Network modelling is giving a lot of helps to think more ideas to create best possible network model. Because of that I selected OPNET simulator in this project to create network models. OPNET Modeller 15.0 (Optimized Network Engineering Tools) Currently OPNET is one of the best tools among many network modelling tools in the network technologies. It provides us to designing network model using all kind of network equipments. Networking designers are gained better understanding of designing before development process. It helps to reduce time manner and expense of prototyping hardware equipments. We can able to analyse, measure the performance and behaviour of proposed Model system from event simulations. OPNET tool contains many features. There are main three editors in the OPNET Æ’ËÅ" Project Editor: It contains graphical interface of network topology nodes such as subnet, hub, switch, router, etc and much kind of links to communicate among those devices. All are designed with graphical user interface such as easy to end users. Æ’ËÅ" Node Editor: It is describe clear picture of internal architecture of the nodes by investigate the data flow between useful nodes. Node model can send, receive and create network traffic with other node model through the packets. Æ’ËÅ" Process Editor: It describes about the processes and events create by implementation of specific process operation on the network such as behaviour and functionality of the node model. During the simulation time each node model may create a process of any event, so that it gives the state of process and its functionality. Completely we cant compare simulated network with real world time traffic. But it will give some of information such as how much required bandwidth, where the jamming can occur and how to handle to avoid these problems.